By Ruth Oji

MOST conversations in speaking or writing contexts are usually prefaced with discourse markers. Why is this fitting, and why are discourse markers inevitable in communication? This article discusses this and shares examples of several discourse markers you can use in your speaking or writing engagements. The list won’t be exhaustive because there are a ton of these discourse markers.

To begin, what is discourse? Discourse means pieces of language that are longer than a sentence. There are words and expressions used to show how discourse is connected. They can show the connection between what a speaker is saying and what has already been said or what is going to be said. Additionally, they can help to make clear the structure of what is being said and indicate what speakers think about what they are saying or what others have said. As you read along, note which discourse markers are best for informal speech or writing, and which are more common in a formal style. Using a dictionary can help you determine the best usage. 

I will begin with examples of discourse markers that are used at the beginning of clauses (they are all positioned at the beginning anyway!) to promote focus and linking. Examples are ‘with reference to; talking/speaking of/about; regarding; as regards; as far as … is concerned; as for.’ I will now situate them with sentence examples.

1. ‘With reference to your letter of February 23, I am pleased to inform you that you have been selected for the role.’ Notice that ‘with reference to’ is a very formal expression used mainly at the beginning of business letters.

2. ‘I saw Vivian and Christie today. You know, they – Talking of Vivian, did you know she went to Maiduguri yesterday?’ Note that ‘speaking/talking of/about …’ is used to make a link with what has just been said. It can help a speaker to change the subject. Apparently, this usage works in an informal speech context.

3. ‘Hi, Temi, Now look, regarding the proposed trip – I really don’t think it’d be feasible for me now.’ Do you see how ‘regarding’ can come at the beginning of a piece of discourse?

4. ‘There are no obvious problems with respect to our advertising process. Now, as regards marketing, there is a lot that needs to be done there. Also, as far as visibility is concerned, we have to do more.’ ‘As regards’ and ‘as far as … is concerned’ usually announce a change of subject by the speaker/writer.

5. ‘My friends celebrated my wedding anniversary with me in grand style. As for Chidinma, she was unpeturbed about it and didn’t show up.’ ‘As for’ is used to suggest lack of interest or dislike.

Another set of discourse marker is that used for balancing contrasting points. They are expressions used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast but do not necessarily contradict each other. ‘On the contrary’ is more readily used for contradictory ideas placed close to each other. See the following examples in sentence forms (on the one hand (on one hand), on the other hand, while, whereas):

1. ‘Buying Naira is common in Lagos. In the north, on the other hand, the opposite is the case.’ (Some writers would argue that you have to compulsorily use ‘on the one hand’ before using ‘on the other hand’. But the argument should be that there is a contrasting opinion that is shared before the use of the latter).

2. ‘On one hand, our business needs more money to grow. On the other hand, interest rates are killing!’ 

3. ‘Whereas I love beans, my husband loves rice.’ ‘I love rice, while my husband loves beans.’

To emphasize a contrast, several discourse such as the following may be used: however; nevertheless (very formal); nonetheless; mind you; still; yet; in spite of this/that; despite this/that. Sentence examples follow:

1. He dislikes his job, but he still does it. Mind you, the pay is tempting, so who wouldn’t stay!

2. I had a flat tyre on my way to work; in spite of that, I was there on time.

3. The National Universities Commission have mandated schools to use a new curriculum in teaching; however, schools still have some room for their creativity.

For a change of subject, the following discourse markers can be used: ‘by the way; incidentally, all right, now; OK’. ‘(All) right’, ‘now’, and ‘OK’ are often used informally by teachers, lecturers, and people giving instructions in speaking contexts, to indicate that a new section of the discourse is starting. For example, ‘Any questions? None? Right, let’s move on to the next learning point.’ ‘Now, I’d like to introduce this concept since we are done with the other.’ ‘Is this concept clear? OK, let’s all get out our notepads and begin the classwork.’ ‘By the way’ and ‘incidentally’ are used to introduce something one has just thought about that is not directly part of the original conversation. For example, ‘I was clear about my position on that issue. Oh, by the way, did you read my interview published in the Vanguard?’ Another example: ‘This meeting is taking longer than I anticipated. Oh. Incidentally, I have to go now.’

To promote similarity, try using the discourse marker ‘similarly’ especially in a formal context. Also, ‘in the same way’ or ‘just as’ works in promoting similarity. Sentence examples: ‘Just as I assiduously studied and made good grades, I strive to inculcate the same attitude in my children.’ ‘Many people were in sore straits back in the days when poor policies were implemented. Similarly, people are currently in despair given the recent economic hardships.’ And there’s this favourite quotation from the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, at Ephesians 5: 28. After describing how Christ treated the congregation, as highlighted in verses 25-27, verse 28 begins with the expression, ‘In the same way, husbands should love their wives as their own bodies …’ The point is clear, isn’t it? Husbands are encouraged to treat their wives in the same way that Christ treated his followers. That similarity is well highlighted. Can you come up with your own example?

•Dr. Oji is a Senior Lecturer of English at the Institute of Humanities, Pan-Atlantic University, Lagos